Diversity Reading List

During the Warring States period, the rulers of several powerful states began declaring themselves kings, a title traditionally reserved for the Zhou dynasty’s ruler. The period culminated in 221 B.C.E. when the king of Qin unified China and declared himself the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty. This era was marked by constant conflict, with the general populace frequently facing threats of death and starvation. In their struggle for survival, state rulers sought out talented individuals and innovative solutions to address these problems. As a result, ancient Chinese philosophy emerged with a strong focus on solving social and political issues, leading to a flourishing of ideas and thoughts. One significant development during this time was the establishment of the Confucian School by Confucius, further advanced by thinkers like Mengzi (Mencius) and Xunzi. Confucianism, which emphasises pedagogy and includes several classical texts central to its study, became the dominant ideology during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.).

Confucians were concerned with restoring political order and achieving moral transformation in society through self-cultivation and the preservation of family relations. They advocated for top-down social reform, believing that the ruler should serve as a moral exemplar for the people. Socially and politically conservative, Confucians idealised the sage kings of antiquity and viewed history not as a progression but as a decline into degeneration and corruption. They believed the masses could be transformed through rites (codes of propriety that shape external behaviour) and music (which affects internal emotions and feelings). The ultimate goal was to cultivate the virtue of ‘Ren’ (humanity). The Confucian approach to the philosophy of mind must therefore be situated within this context of their broader concerns in cultivating moral virtues and transforming society. For Confucians, the human mind is primarily characterised not by cognitive or affective functions, but by aspects of the ‘original mind’ that are essential for making correct moral responses.

While many have argued that early Chinese thinkers endorsed a holistic view about the mind-body relationship, there is also evidence that they distinguish the mental from the body. One important notion in Confucian ethics is the idea of the extension of one’s mind. To cultivate one’s mind is to extend and deepen it so that it ‘can embrace the ten thousand things and the whole universe’ (Mengzi 7A4). To make sense of this idea, Chen (2017) suggests that we should interpret Confucians as endorsing substance dualism: the mental and the body as two distinct substances. He traces the idea of extension the mind in classic Confucian texts and neo-Confucian writings such as that of Wang Yangming.

The Daoist school was a loosely affiliated group of thinkers, with the legendary figure Laozi as its first notable proponent. Laozi is attributed with writing the Daodejing, a foundational metaphysical treatise. Daoist philosophy further developed and matured through the writings of Zhuangzi. Early Daoist thinkers proposed radical departures from the ideals and practices of their contemporary society, rejecting the narrowly human concerns of other philosophical schools, as well as their views on government and conventionality. Daoist philosophers advocated for spiritual elevation, freedom, and a life of tranquility, creating a mental utopia for Chinese intellectuals. Unlike many of their contemporaries, who focused primarily on good governance and moral cultivation, Daoist philosophers were also deeply interested in cosmology, ontology, the nature of language, and epistemology.

Little is known about Zhuangzi’s life. He was a contemporary of Mengzi (Mencius), the prominent Confucian philosopher. The book “”Zhuangzi”” is a compilation of his writings, along with contributions from other authors, collected over a period from the 4th to the 2nd century B.C.E. (Graham 2003:58). There is ongoing debate about the dating of specific sections. Zhuangzi’s prose is distinct and regarded as a literary masterpiece, characterized by the use of parables—stories that are often fanciful, featuring imaginary creatures or historical figures. These tales are typically pithy, witty, and amusing, making them accessible and attractive while also challenging readers to interpret the underlying philosophical ideas.

Zhuangzi’s philosophy is grounded in this-world concerns, aiming to help people cope with suffering and misery. According to Zhuangzi, while one must learn to navigate the human world and recognize human distinctions as they are, one can always embrace the perspective of the Dao, which transcends all human distinctions. By doing so, one sets one’s spirit free, allowing it to roam at ease in the world of Dao. The wise person (智者) which occupies an important place in Zhuangzi’s thought in characterized by their emotional state. Understanding emotion is therefore crucial to understand Zhuangzi’s conception of the good life.

Buddhism is founded by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha (meaning the enlightened/awaken one). After Guatama Buddha passed away, the questions about Buddhahood split his followers into two strands: Theravada (the way of the elders) Buddhism, (which is also called disparagingly as Hinayana) and Mahayana Buddhism (the greater vehicle). Theravada Buddhism focuses on individual salvation and one’s own efforts in understanding the Buddha’s teaching. They believe that only a special group of people have the potential to reach Buddhahood as such it did not completely cut off its root in the Indian caste system. Mahayana Buddhism, by contrast, is characterized by its altruism and compassion, which is embodied in the doctrine of bodhisattvas. And it is this brand of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism that spread northwest and entered China around 1st C.E. It met Daoism and Confucianism and around 5/6 C.E Chinese Buddhism emerges and spread further northeast to Japan and Korea.

This ethical teaching of Mahayana Buddhism sits well with the idea of Sagehood in Chinese philosophy, which is also an ideal achievable by everyone. It resonates with the Confucian ethical outlook, which promotes humanity and benevolence. Buddhism also introduces many philosophical ideas such as the concept of mind, ideas of space and time, consciousness, self-awareness to the Chinese thought.

It is not until the sixth century that Chinese Buddhism began to take its distinctive shape. When Xuanzang (596-664) return from 10 years’ study and travelling in India, he brought back with him 657 Buddhist texts and devoted the rest of his time to translating Sanskrit texts into Chinese. The translation school he founded and the consequent systematic translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese set the foundation for the development of Chinese Buddhism. Scholastic interpretations, classifying and ranking of of Buddhist teachings and texts became the basis of competing schools of Buddhism, the foremost being the Consciousness-Only (Weishi zong), Heavenly Terrace (Tiantai zong), Pure Land (Jingtu zong) Flower Ornament (Huayan zong) and the Chan school. This blueprint focuses on the Consciousness-only (Weishi) and the Chan School (also known to the west as Zen Buddhism through Japan).

If attending to the primary texts, also look at Vasubandhu’s Thirty Stanzas.

Chan Buddhism is a radical break from this scholastic approach—an explicit rejection of language, conceptualization and advocate for a kind of authentic Buddhist teachings that can only be found in the immediate, face-to-face encounters of Buddhist masters and their students. Chan Budhism is heavily influenced by Daoism and has a deep influence on neo-Confucian Wang Yangming’s development of his theory of mind. One central tenant of Chan Buddhism is the claim that all sentient beings have buddha-nature, which is the mind, the source of enlightenment.

Neo-Confucianism refers to the revival of classical Confucianism developed between 11th and 18th centuries in China, spanning over four dynasties in Chinese history, Song Yuan Ming and Qing dynasties. This is a period of relative stability and prosperity. The population grows from estimated 90 million to 200 million by the time of the Ming Dynasty and to 300 million by the end of 18th century in the Qing Dynasty. With the expansion of population there was a growth of cities, commerce, the flourishing of art and the emergence of a national economy. Neo-Confucianism was a new form of Confucianism resulting from the challenge and influence of Daoism and Buddhism within Chinese literati circles.

One prominent neo-Confucian school, the School of Mind was founded by Wang Yangming. He contends that morality is grounded in the individual’s moral reflection; emphasises cultivation of ‘Liangzhi’, the innate faculty of pure knowing or moral consciousness. The school of mind contends that morality is grounded in the individual’s moral reflection and cultivation of the human mind.

Zhu Xi was the most influential neo-Confucian in China. Zhu researched and reflected on the received Five Classics(The Book of Change, Odes, History, Rites, and Spring and Autumn Annals), and compiled, edited, and commented on a compendium of essential Confucian texts, the Great Learning (Daxue), the Analects (Lunyu) of Confucius, the Book of Mencius (Mengzi), and the Doctrine of the Mean(Zhongyong), titled the Four Books (Sishu). His editing and commentaries to Confucian classics became the orthodox and served as the curriculum of the civil service exam from 1313 to 1905.

Central to Zhu’s moral psychology is the idea of Li and Qi. Li is the principle or pattern that is in everything and governs the universe. Each person’s heartmind contains a perfect li. As such, individuals are capable of acting in perfect accordance with morality. However, while li is the underlying structure, qi is also part of everything. Qi obscures our perfect moral nature. The task of moral cultivation is to clear our qi. If our qi is clear and balanced, then we will act in a perfectly moral way. Zhu thinks human desires obstruct us from following the principle and should be eliminated. Contrary to Zhu’s view, Wang Fuzhi believes that natural emotions and desires play an important role. He develops an account of moral psychology that has been characterized by commentators as moral sentimentalism. Moral sentiments under reflection lead an agent to act in accordance with the heavenly principle.

For the primary texts of Zhu Xi, focus on the following sections: “The Mind” and “The Mind, The Nature, and The Feelings””, pp. 628–32.